5 Types and Classes

Instance Creation and Initialization

Overview

• The program calls make specifying a class and a set of keyword arguments.

• Optionally, the default make method may be shadowed by a user-supplied method specialized with a singleton specializer. This enables the user method to get at all the arguments to make, and to provide actual instantiation and initializations based on them. For example, a singleton method on an abstract class can reinvoke make on a concrete subclass of the abstract class, passing along the same or augmented initialization arguments.

• The default make method examines its keyword arguments, which are known as the supplied initialization arguments. It then produces a set of defaulted initialization arguments by augmenting the supplied initialization arguments with any additional initialization arguments for which default values are defined by the class or any of its superclasses.
  If the supplied initialization arguments contains duplicate keywords, make will use the leftmost occurance. This is consistent with keyword argument conventions used in function calls.

• The default make method signals an error if any required init-keyword is absent from the defaulted initialization arguments, or if any of the defaulted initialization arguments are not valid for initialization of that class. An initialization argument is valid if it is specified as an init-keyword in a slot specification or initialization argument specification, or if it is permitted by one or more of the initialize methods applicable to an instance of the class.

• The default make method allocates an instance and initializes all the slots for which it can provide values, as follows
  • If the slot is keyword initializable and its keyword is present in the defaulted initialization arguments, then the slot is initialized from the defaulted initialization arguments.

  • If the slot is not initialized by a keyword but has an init specification, it is initialized from the init specification.

  • In either case, an error of type <type-error> is signaled if the value is not of the type declared for the slot.

• The default make method then calls initialize on the initialized instance and the defaulted initialization arguments. Methods on initialize can access these arguments by accepting them as keyword parameters or in a rest parameter. If they are accepted in a rest parameter and the defaulted initialization arguments contained duplicate keywords, it is undefined whether any entries other than the leftmost for that keyword will be present.

• Each initialize method typically calls next-method, and then performs its own initializations. (Note that it won't have to initialize slots that were initialized by the default method on make.)

• The default make method ignores the value of the call to initialize and returns the instance.

  The values of virtual slots are not automatically initialized when a new instance is created. The programmer must perform any necessary initialization. This would usually be done inside a method on initialize. Because the values of virtual slots are often computed from other values at run-time, many virtual slots will not require any explicit initialization.

Additional Behavior of Make and Initialize

define abstract class <dog> (<object>)
end class
define class <yorkshire-terrier> (<dog>)
end class
define method make (the-class == <dog>, #rest init-args, #key)
  apply(make, <yorkshire-terrier>, init-args)
end

make is not required to return a newly allocated instance. It may return a previously created instance if that is appropriate. If a new instance is allocated, make will call initialize on the instance before returning it.

The make method on <class> returns a newly allocated direct instance of its first argument.

Programmers may customize make for particular classes by defining methods specialized on singletons of classes. These methods may reinvoke make on a subtype of the class, or they may obtain the default make behavior by calling next-method.

The default make method signals an error if its first argument is an abstract class. An instantiable abstract class must override this method with its own method for make.

Initialization of Class Allocated Slots

• If the slot is not keyword initializable and the class definition does not include an init specification for the slot, the slot remains uninitialized until it is explicitly assigned by the program.

• If the slot is not keyword initializable and the class definition does include an init specification for the slot, the slot is initialized from the init specification before or during the creation of the first instance of the class.

• If the slot is keyword-initializable and the class definition also includes an init specification for the slot, the slot may be initialized or assigned by the default method of make whenever an instance is created, as follows:
  • If the corresponding initialization argument is absent from the defaulted initialization arguments of the call to make and the slot has not yet been initialized, then the slot is initialized from the init specification. If the slot has already been initialized, no action is taken.

  • If the corresponding initialization argument is present in the defaulted initialization arguments of the call to make, then the slot is set to the value of that initialization argument, regardless of whether the slot was previously initialized.

Testing the Initialization of a Slot

To support the slot-initialized? protocol in a virtual slot, programmers must define a method for slot-initialized? that specializes on the getter of the slot and the class.

Inherited Slot Specifications

Inherited slot specifications identify the slot to be modified by the getter name. The inherited slot specification is only allowed if the class does indeed inherit a slot with that getter.

(An inherited slot specification is not required to include an init specification. If it does not, its only purpose is to ensure that the slot is present in a superclass. Because init specifications are not allowed for virtual slots, this is the only valid form of inherited slot specification for virtual slots.)

If an inherited slot specification supplies an init specification, it overrides any init specification inherited from a superclass. This allows the init specification of an inherited slot to be replaced in a subclass, thereby changing the default initial value of the slot.

define class <animal> (<object>)
  slot n-legs, init-value: 4;
end class;
define class <spider> (<animal>)
  inherited slot n-legs, init-value: 8;
end class;

Initialization Argument Specifications

Initialization argument specifications allow the type of an initialization argument to be restricted, they allow an initialization argument to be declared to be required, and they allow the specification of a default value for an initialization argument.

Note that an initialization argument will only be used if it is specified to be the init-keyword of a slot, or if it is used as a keyword argument in an applicable method on initialize. An initialization argument specification can supply a default value for an initialization argument, and it can restrict the type of the argument or make it required, but it does not by itself cause the argument to be used when initializing an instance.

There are two kinds of initialization argument specifications: required initialization argument specifications, and optional initialization argument specifications.

A required initialization argument specification asserts that the initialization argument must be present in the defaulted initialization arguments. The default make method will signal an error if no such initialization argument is present.

An optional initialization argument specification can be used to specify a default value for the initialization argument, using an init specification. When a call to make does not specify the initialization argument, the default make method will add it to the defaulted initialization arguments with the value of the init specification.

The type argument has the same meaning in both kinds of initialization argument specification: it restricts the type of that initialization argument. Note that this is not the same thing as restricting the type of the slot.

The following example shows how initialization argument specifications can be used to override the behavior of a superclass:

define class <person> (<object>)
  slot favorite-beverage, init-value: #"milk",
                    init-keyword: favorite-beverage:;
  slot name required-init-keyword: name:;
end class <person>;
define class <astronaut> (<person>)
  keyword favorite-beverage: init-value: #"tang";
  keyword name: init-value: "Bud";
end class <astronaut>;

More than one keyword initializable slot may be initialized from the same initialization argument (that is, more than one keyword initializable slot may specify the same init-keyword). However, an error is signaled if a single define-class form has more than one initialization argument specification for the same keyword. An error will also be signaled if a single define-class form has a keyword initializable slot which includes an init specification and also includes an initialization argument specification for the same keyword that is either required or provides a default value. These error situations are all indications of code that can never be reached.

Initialization Argument Inheritance

• A slot specification which supplies an init-keyword K by using required-init-keyword: is treated as if the initialization argument specification required keyword K had been specified in the class definition.

• A slot specification which supplies both an init-keyword and also an init specification is not equivalent to an initialization argument specification which includes both the init-keyword and an init specification. In the former case the init specification is used to default the value of the slot directly, but does not affect the defaulted initialization arguments; in the latter case the init specification is used to default the value of the slot indirectly, by affecting the defaulted initialization arguments.

• If the initialization argument is being specified for the first time (it is not inherited from any superclass) there are three factors to consider:
  • The type: argument, which defaults to <object>, specifies the required type of the initialization argument. (This does not specify the type of the slot.)

  • If the initialization argument is specified with required keyword then it is required, otherwise it is optional.

  • If the initialization argument is specified with keyword, then it can provide an init specification which is used by the default make method to provide a default value for the initialization argument in the defaulted initialization arguments.

• If an initialization argument specification is being specified for an initialization argument which is inherited from a single superclass, the following factors hold:
  • The type must be a subtype of the type of the inherited initialization argument. This implies that the type must be specified unless the type of the inherited initialization argument is <object>.

  • The initialization argument is required if the overriding initialization argument specification uses required keyword, or if the inherited initialization argument specification is required and the overriding initialization argument specification does not provide an init specification. When the the overriding initialization argument specification uses required keyword, any init specification in the inherited initialization argument specification is discarded. This means that a subclass can make an initialization argument used by a superclass become required; it can also make a required initialization argument become optional by specifying a default value for it.

  • Otherwise, the initialization argument is optional. If the overriding specification provides an init specification, then that is used to compute the defaulted initialization argument when the class is instantiated. Otherwise, the inherited initial value specification is used.

• When an initialization argument specification is being inherited from multiple superclasses, if the superclasses have exactly the same definition for the initialization argument, then that definition can simply be inherited. If the definitions differ, then the class which combines these other classes must provide an initialization argument specification which is compatible with all of the inherited ones, as described above.

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